Chemistry (Version 8.4)

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Unit 3
Unit 4

Understand how Chemistry works

Rationale/Aims

Chemistry is the study of materials and substances, and the transformations they undergo through interactions and the transfer of energy. Chemists can use an understanding of chemical structures and processes to adapt, control and manipulate systems to meet particular economic, environmental and social needs.

Structure of Chemistry

In Chemistry, students develop their understanding of chemical systems, and how models of matter and energy transfers and transformations can be used to describe, explain and predict chemical structures, properties and reactions.

Links to Foundation to Year 10

The Chemistry curriculum continues to develop student understanding and skills from across the three strands of the F-10 Australian Curriculum: Science. In the Science Understanding strand, the Chemistry curriculum draws on knowledge and understanding from across the four sub-strands of Biological, Physical, Chemical and Earth and Space Sciences.

Representation of Cross-curriculum priorities

While the significance of the cross-curriculum priorities for Chemistry varies, there are opportunities for teachers to select contexts that incorporate the key concepts from each priority.

Achievement standards

Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions

Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions Description

The idea of reversibility of reaction is vital in a variety of chemical systems at different scales, ranging from the processes that release carbon dioxide into our atmosphere to the reactions of ions within individual cells in our bodies. Processes that are reversible will respond to a range of factors and can achieve a state of dynamic equilibrium. In this unit, students investigate acid-base equilibrium systems and their applications. They use contemporary models to explain the nature of acids and bases, and their properties and uses. This understanding enables further exploration of the varying strengths of acids and bases. Students investigate the principles of oxidation and reduction reactions and the production of electricity from electrochemical cells.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories related to acid-base and redox reactions, and their applications, have developed over time and through interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They explore the ways in which chemistry contributes to contemporary debate in industrial and environmental contexts, including the use of energy, evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and they recognise the limitations of science in providing definitive answers in different contexts.

Students use science inquiry skills to investigate the principles of dynamic chemical equilibrium and how these can be applied to chemical processes and systems. They investigate a range of electrochemical cells, including the choice of materials used and the voltage produced by these cells. Students use the pH scale to assist in making judgements and predictions about the extent of dissociation of acids and bases and about the concentrations of ions in an aqueous solution.

Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students:

understand the characteristics of equilibrium systems, and explain and predict how they are affected by changes to temperature, concentration and pressure
understand the difference between the strength and concentration of acids, and relate this to the principles of chemical equilibrium
understand how redox reactions, galvanic and electrolytic cells are modelled in terms of electron transfer
understand how models and theories have developed over time and the ways in which chemical knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and political considerations in a range of contexts
use science inquiry skills to design, conduct, evaluate and communicate investigations into the properties of acids and bases, redox reactions and electrochemical cells, including volumetric analysis
evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about equilibrium systems and justify evaluations
communicate, predict and explain chemical phenomena using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions Content Descriptions

Science Inquiry Skills (Chemistry Unit 3)

Identify, research, construct and refine questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes (ACSCH074)

Design investigations, including the procedure/s to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics (ACSCH075)

Conduct investigations, including using volumetric analysis techniques and constructing electrochemical cells, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data (ACSCH076)

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including using appropriate graphic representations and correct units and symbols; organise and process data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; identify and distinguish between random and systematic errors, and estimate their effect on measured results; discuss how the nature of the procedure and the sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions (ACSCH077)

Interpret a range of scientific texts, and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence, including confidence intervals in secondary data; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments (ACSCH078)

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including half-equations, balanced chemical equations, equilibrium constants and expressions, pH, oxidation numbers, standard electrode potentials and cell diagrams, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions (ACSCH079)

Select and use appropriate mathematical representations to solve problems and make predictions, including calculating cell potentials under standard conditions, using the mole concept to calculate moles, mass, volume and concentrations from volumetric analysis data, determining the yield of incomplete reactions, and calculating the pH of solutions of strong acids and bases (ACSCH080)

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports (ACSCH081)

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of data sets with which scientists work (ACSCH082)

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power (ACSCH083)

The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic, and cultural context in which it is considered (ACSCH084)

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk (ACSCH085)

Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question (ACSCH086)

International collaboration is often required when investing in large-scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region (ACSCH087)

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability (ACSCH088)

Science Understanding

Chemical equilibrium systems

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Chemical balance in wine

The production of wine, along with that of many other food products, relies on the successful control of a range of reversible reactions in order to maintain the required chemical balance within the product. For wine, this balance includes the acidity, alcohol concentration, sugar levels and the colour of the wine. Techniques such as auto titration, gas chromatography and infrared spectroscopy are used to measure the chemical composition of wine. Data from these methods, including the analysis of multivariate data, has enabled scientists to identify how the concentrations of the various chemicals in the wine are related, both to each other and the observable properties of wine such as taste and aroma (ACSCH082). Sulphur dioxide is used to maintain chemical balance in wine, as it binds with acetaldehyde. ‘Sulphite calculators’ are available so that wine makers can predict the amount of sulphur dioxide required. However decisions as to how the sulphur dioxide is added to the wine, including how much to use, will depend on preferences of the winemaker, especially for those producers who market wine as ‘organic’ or ‘preservative free’ (ACSCH084).

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and hydrosphere

The levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have a significant influence on global systems, including surface temperatures. The oceans contribute to the maintenance of steady concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide because the gas can dissolve in seawater through a range of reversible processes. The uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide by the oceans is driven by the difference in gas pressure in the atmosphere and in the oceans, and by the air/sea transfer velocity. Because carbon dioxide is increasing in the atmosphere, more of it moves into the ocean to balance the oceanic and atmospheric gas pressures, causing a change in the equilibrium point. Dissolved carbon dioxide increases ocean acidity, which is predicted to have a range of negative consequences for ecosystems, including direct impacts on oceanic calcifying organisms such as corals, crustaceans and molluscs because structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution under at lower pH levels (ACSCH088). The United Nations Kyoto Protocol and the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change aim to secure global commitment to a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions over the next decades (ACSCH087).

Development of acid/base models

Lavoisier, often referred to as the father of modern chemistry, believed that all acids contained oxygen. In 1810, Davy proposed that it was hydrogen, rather than oxygen, that was common to all acids (ACSCH083). Arrhenius linked the behaviour of acids to their ability to produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solution, however this theory only related to aqueous solutions and relied on all bases producing hydroxide ions. In 1923 Brønsted (and at about the same time, Lowry) refined the earlier theories by describing acids as proton donators (ACSCH083). This theory allowed for the description of conjugate acid-bases, and for the explanation of the varying strength of acids based on the stability of the ions produced when acids ionise to form the hydrogen ions. This concept has been applied to contemporary research into ‘superacids’, such as carborane acids, which have been found to be a million times stronger than sulphuric acid when the position of equilibrium in aqueous solution is considered.

Chemical systems may be open or closed and include physical changes and chemical reactions which can result in observable changes to the system (ACSCH089)

All physical changes are reversible, whereas only some chemical reactions are reversible (ACSCH090)

Over time, physical changes and reversible chemical reactions reach a state of dynamic equilibrium in a closed system, with the relative concentrations of products and reactants defining the position of equilibrium (ACSCH091)

The reversibility of chemical reactions can be explained by considering the activation energies of the forward and reverse reactions (ACSCH092)

The effect of changes of temperature on chemical systems at equilibrium can be explained by considering the enthalpy changes for the forward and reverse reactions (ACSCH093)

The effect of changes of concentration and pressure on chemical systems at equilibrium can be explained and predicted by applying collision theory to the forward and reverse reactions (ACSCH094)

The effects of changes of temperature, concentration of chemicals and pressure on equilibrium systems can be predicted using Le Chatelier’s Principle (ACSCH095)

Equilibrium position can be predicted qualitatively using equilibrium constants (ACSCH096)

Acids are substances that can act as proton (hydrogen ion) donors and can be classified as monoprotic or polyprotic depending on the number of protons donated by each molecule of the acid (ACSCH097)

The strength of acids is explained by the degree of ionisation at equilibrium in aqueous solution, which can be represented with chemical equations and equilibrium constants (Ka) (ACSCH098)

The relationship between acids and bases in equilibrium systems can be explained using the Brønsted-Lowry model and represented using chemical equations that illustrate the transfer of hydrogen ions (ACSCH099)

The pH scale is a logarithmic scale and the pH of a solution can be calculated from the concentration of hydrogen ions; K_w can be used to calculate the concentration of hydrogen ions from the concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution (ACSCH100)

Acid-base indicators are weak acids or bases where the acidic form is of a different colour to the basic form (ACSCH101)

Volumetric analysis methods involving acid-base reactions rely on the identification of an equivalence point by measuring the associated change in pH, using chemical indicators or pH meters, to reveal an observable end point (ACSCH102)

Oxidation and reduction

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Breathalysers and measurement of blood alcohol levels

The level of alcohol in the body can be measured by testing breath or blood alcohol concentrations (ACSCH085). These analysis techniques rely on redox reactions. Police first used breath testing for alcohol in the 1940s. Currently, a range of other detection methods are available to police, and commercially to drivers who are now able to test themselves before driving. Some meters use infrared spectroscopy to determine the amount of alcohol present, which can be converted to blood alcohol concentration (BAC). Electrochemical cells form the basis of ‘alcosensors’ which can also be used to measure BAC. These cells work by recording the electrical potential produced by the oxidation of the ethanol at platinum electrodes. Although science can provide information about the effect of alcohol on our bodies in relation to the ability to drive, decisions about ‘safe’ levels of BAC for driving (including those used to write legislation) take into account other factors, such as the experience of the driver, and can vary from country to country (ACSCH086).

Fuel cells and their uses

Redox reactions that occur spontaneously can be used as a source of electrical energy. These include wet cells (such as car batteries), dry cells, and alkaline batteries. Fuel cells are electrochemical cells that use up a ‘fuel’, such as hydrogen. Fuel cells were first demonstrated in the 1840s, but were not commercially available until the late twentieth century. Currently, small fuel cells are designed for laptop computers and other portable electronic devices; larger fuel cells are used to provide backup power for hospitals; and wastewater treatment plants and landfills make use of fuel cells to capture and convert the methane gas they produce into methane (ACSCH088). Fuel cells are a potential lower-emission alternative to the internal combustion engine and are already being used to power buses, boats, trains and cars (ACSCH088). International organisations such as the International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy (IPHE) have been created to foster international cooperation on research and development, common codes and standards, and information sharing on infrastructure development (ACSCH087).

Electrochemistry for clean water

Electrochemistry has a wide range of uses, ranging from industrial scale metal extraction to personal cosmetic treatments. A new application has been in the treatment of mineral rich bore water. New Zealand scientists have trialled a system that uses electrochemistry to remove the iron and manganese ions present in bore water, which currently make the water undrinkable. An electric current converts chloride ions to chlorine, which then oxidises and precipitates out the metal contaminants, as well as disinfecting the water. The electric current passing through the water also dramatically increased the effectiveness of the chlorine in killing organisms in the water. The process requires minimal current and can be provided by a 12-volt car battery, which makes it a cheap and relatively ‘low tech’ solution suitable for use in rural areas of developing countries (ACSCH087).

A range of reactions, including displacement reactions of metals, combustion, corrosion, and electrochemical processes, can be modelled as redox reactions involving oxidation of one substance and reduction of another substance (ACSCH103)

Oxidation can be modelled as the loss of electrons from a chemical species, and reduction can be modelled as the gain of electrons by a chemical species; these processes can be represented using half-equations (ACSCH104)

The ability of an atom to gain or lose electrons can be explained with reference to valence electrons, consideration of energy, and the overall stability of the atom, and can be predicted from the atom’s position in the periodic table (ACSCH105)

The relative strength of oxidising and reducing agents can be determined by comparing standard electrode potentials (ACSCH106)

Electrochemical cells, including galvanic and electrolytic cells, consist of oxidation and reduction half-reactions connected via an external circuit that allows electrons to move from the anode (oxidation reaction) to the cathode (reduction reaction) (ACSCH107)

Galvanic cells, including fuel cells, generate an electrical potential difference from a spontaneous redox reaction; they can be represented as cell diagrams including anode and cathode half-equations (ACSCH108)

Fuel cells can use metal nanoparticles as catalysts to improve the efficiency of energy production (ACSCH109)

Cell potentials at standard conditions can be calculated from standard electrode potentials; these values can be used to compare cells constructed from different materials (ACSCH110)

Electrolytic cells use an external electrical potential difference to provide the energy to allow a non-spontaneous redox reaction to occur, and can be used in small-scale and industrial situations (ACSCH111)

Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design

Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design Description

Current and future applications of chemistry include the development of specialised techniques to create, or synthesise, new substances to meet the specific needs of society, including pharmaceuticals, fuels, polymers and nanomaterials. In this unit, students focus on the principles and application of chemical synthesis, particularly in organic chemistry. This involves considering where and how functional groups can be incorporated into already existing carbon compounds in order to generate new substances with properties that enable them to be used in a range of contexts.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories related to chemical synthesis, structure and design, and associated applications, have developed over time and through interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They explore the ways in which chemistry contributes to contemporary debate regarding current and future uses of local, regional and international resources, evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and they recognise the limitations of science in providing definitive answers in different contexts.

Students use science inquiry skills to investigate the principles and application of chemical structure, synthesis and design. They select and use data from instrumental analysis to determine the identity and structure of a range of organic materials. They make predictions based on knowledge of types of chemical reactions, and investigate chemical reactions qualitatively and quantitatively.

Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students:

understand how the presence of functional groups and the molecular structure of organic compounds are related to their properties
understand addition, condensation and oxidation reactions, and predict the products of these reactions
understand how knowledge of chemical systems is used to design synthesis processes, and how data from analytical techniques provides information about chemical structure
understand how models and theories have developed over time and the ways in which chemical knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations in a range of contexts
use science inquiry skills to design, conduct, evaluate and communicate investigations into reactions and the identification of organic compounds, including analysis of secondary data derived from chemical analysis
evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about organic synthesis and chemical design, and justify evaluations
communicate, predict and explain chemical phenomena using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design Content Descriptions

Science Inquiry Skills (Chemistry Unit 4)

Identify, research, construct and refine questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes (ACSCH112)

Conduct investigations, including using organic synthesis methods and collating data from chemical analyses, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data (ACSCH114)

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including using appropriate graphic representations and correct units and symbols; organise and analyse data to identify patterns and relationships; identify and distinguish between random and systematic errors, and estimate their effect on measured results; discuss how the nature of the procedure and the sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence from a range of sources to make and justify conclusions (ACSCH115)

Interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments (ACSCH116)

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including physical, virtual and graphical models of primary, secondary and tertiary structures, structural formulas, chemical equations, systematic nomenclature (using IUPAC conventions) and spectra, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions (ACSCH117)

Select and use appropriate mathematical representations to solve problems and make predictions, including using the mole concept to calculate quantities in chemical reactions, including multi-step reactions, and the percentage yield of synthesis reactions (ACSCH118)

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports (ACSCH119)

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of data sets with which scientists work (ACSCH120)

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power (ACSCH121)

The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered (ACSCH122)

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk (ACSCH123)

International collaboration is often required when investing in large-scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region (ACSCH125)

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability (ACSCH126)

Science Understanding

Properties and structure of organic materials

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Functional groups and organic chemistry

Over 80 per cent of all known compounds are organic compounds. Initial work in the area of organic chemistry was based on observational chemistry, with nineteenth century attempts to organise the diversity of organic compounds based on grouping them according to their reactions. This theory was primarily based on empirical observations of reactivity, and did not consider the structure of the compounds. The theory of chemical structure was initially evident in work describing the concept of the interatomic bond, as formulated independently and simultaneously by Kekulé and Couper in 1858 (ACSCH121). Further advances in understanding of the chemical structure of carbon-based molecules led to a classification based on functional groups. The chemical behaviour of the molecule can now be predicted based on known chemistry of the functional groups it contains. Developments in computer modelling have enabled more accurate visualisation and prediction of three dimensional organic structures, such as proteins, which is critical in drug design and biotechnology (ASCSH120).

Green polymer chemistry

Polymers are common in daily life due to their extraordinary range of properties, and include natural polymeric materials such as wool, silk and natural rubber, and synthetic polymers such as synthetic rubber, neoprene, nylon, polystyrene and polypropylene. Contemporary applications of polymers include their use in organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) to develop television, computer and mobile phone screens that are lighter, more flexible and more energy efficient than previous materials. Synthetic polymers often have large “ecological footprints” as they are synthesised from fossil fuels and do not biodegrade. There is significant research and development directed towards sustainable polymers, produced from renewable sources such as plants, waste products and waste gases (ACSCH126). While there have been significant advances in this field, issues remain regarding the economic viability of this means of production, and use of food crops for the production of polymer materials rather than food (ACSCH122).

Use of organochlorine compounds as insecticides

Organochlorine compounds, such as DDT, chlordane and lindane, were identified as powerful insecticides in the 1950s and their use was credited with reducing malaria and increasing agricultural productivity. Their structure makes them chemically unreactive, so they are stable in soils and in the fatty tissues of animals. As such, they are persistent organic pollutants (POPs), accumulating in food chains and posing a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment. The detrimental environmental effects of DDT were first hypothesised by scientists in the 1940s; when they were popularised through a best-selling book, Silent Spring, in 1962, public reaction was sufficiently large to prompt a government investigation (ACSCH123). Consequently DDT was banned by the United States in 1972, and in 1995 POPs were identified as an issue requiring global action by the United Nations, resulting in a range of organochlorine compounds being banned for agricultural use worldwide under the Stockholm Convention in 2001 (ACSCH125). However some organochlorine compounds are still licensed for use under strict guidelines. For example, they are used to control fire ants, which are a serious social, economic and environmental threat in Australia, the Philippines, Taiwan and parts of New Zealand (ACSCH125).

Organic molecules have a hydrocarbon skeleton and can contain functional groups, including alcohols, carboxylic acids, esters, amines and amides (ACSCH127)

Each class of organic compounds displays characteristic chemical properties and undergoes specific reactions based on the functional groups present; these reactions, including acid-base and oxidation reactions, can be used to identify the class of the organic compound (ACSCH128)

Organic materials including proteins, carbohydrates and synthetic polymers display properties including strength, density and biodegradability that can be explained by considering the primary, secondary or tertiary structures of the material (ACSCH129)

Data from analytical techniques, including mass spectrometry, x-ray crystallography and infrared spectroscopy, can be used to determine the structure of organic molecules, often using evidence from more than one technique (ACSCH130)

Chemical synthesis and design

Examples in context

Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.

Green synthesis methods and atom economy

Future challenges in Australia and the Asia region in resource, environmental and economic sustainability demand more efficient chemical processes. The concept of atom economy was proposed by American Barry Trost in the 1990s. It is a way of describing the efficiency of a reaction, by dividing the molecular mass of the desired product by the combined molecular masses of all reactants. Many established large-scale industrial chemical processes in the petrochemical industry have a low atom economy, resulting in unwanted byproducts and waste management issues. Green chemistry aims to increase the atom economy of chemical processes by designing novel reactions that can maximise the desired products and minimise byproducts (ACSCH126). Designing new synthetic schemes that can simplify operations in chemical productions, and seeking greener solvents that are inherently environmentally and ecologically benign, are also important in developing sustainable chemical industries (ACSCH126).

Biofuel synthesis

Dwindling supplies of economically viable sources of fossil fuels and concerns related to carbon emissions have prompted research into the synthesis of biofuels (ACSCH126) from plant feedstocks such as algae, oil seeds and wood waste, or from waste materials such as food industry waste oils (ACSCH126). In the 1990s, a number of plants producing biodiesel were established in Europe and biodiesel is now available at many service stations across Europe. Biofuels are more complex than petroleum-based fuels, many comprising of a range of alcohols or methyl esters. Analysis techniques such as spectroscopy and mass spectrometry can be used to investigate the combustion processes of these ‘oxygenated’ fuels, and predict any potential harmful emissions from their combustion (ACSCH123). While biofuels may address issues of renewable fuel supply, there are concerns that a focus on biomass plantations as feedstocks may result in reduced available land for food production, and an increase in food prices and availability (ACSCH126).

Development of molecular manufacturing processes

Molecular manufacturing (or molecular assembly) is an area of developing science that involves building objects to atomic precision using robotic mechanisms to position and react molecules (ACSCH120). A recent publication in the peer-reviewed international journal Science reported that researchers had developed a new way of developing sequence-specific peptides using a rotaxane as a ‘molecular machine’. Proponents of molecular manufacturing argue that it has the potential to quickly develop products such as stronger materials and smaller, faster and more energy-efficient computers. They claim it will address a range of global issues through provision of vital materials and products at a greatly reduced cost and environmental impact. However other groups caution that cheap, rapid manufacturing capacity could also lead to a range of social, economic and environmental issues, and requires international regulations and policies to be in place before the technology becomes widely available. Some scientists predict that a ‘molecular manufacturing revolution’ will occur within the next 20 to 50 years, while others are sceptical that the methods used will ever become economically viable (ACSCH124).

Chemical synthesis involves the selection of particular reagents to form a product with specific properties (for example, pharmaceuticals, fuels, cosmetics, cleaning products) (ACSCH131)

Designing chemical synthesis processes involves constructing reaction pathways that may include more than one chemical reaction (ACSCH132)

Designing chemical synthesis processes includes identifying reagents and reaction conditions in order to maximise yield and purity of product (ACSCH133)

The yield of a chemical synthesis reaction can be calculated by comparing stoichiometric quantities with actual quantities (ACSCH134)

Green chemistry principles include the design of chemical synthesis processes that use renewable raw materials, limit the use of potentially harmful solvents and minimise the amount of unwanted products (ACSCH135)

Organic molecules, including polymers, can be synthesised using addition and condensation reactions (ACSCH136)

Fuels (for example, biodiesel, ethanol, hydrogen) can be synthesised from organic or inorganic sources using a range of chemical reactions including addition, oxidation and esterification (ACSCH137)

Molecular manufacturing processes, including protein synthesis, involve the positioning of molecules to facilitate a specific chemical reaction; such methods have the potential to synthesise specialised products (for example, carbon nanotubes, nanorobots, chemical sensors used in medicine) (ACSCH138)